Fig. 1

Directed acyclic graph (DAG) illustrating hypothesized relationships among key variables: Historical redlining score (HR), area deprivation (ADI), racial segregation (RS), mortgage lending (ML), and firearm-related violence (FV). Area deprivation (ADI) and racial segregation RS are conceptualized as confounders of the association between mortgage lending (ML) and firearm-related violence (FV), shaped by historic redlining (HR) but not influencing it. Arrows indicate hypothesized pathways. The conceptual model reinforces our theoretical model positing that structural racism manifests through both historical and contemporary policies and practices